^1 FOOD ECONOMY 
■ WAR TIME 



BY 
T. B. WOOD, M.A. 

Drapers Professor of Agriculture 
AND 

F. G. HOPKINS, M.A., F.R.S. 

Professor of Biochemistry 



Cambridge 

at the University Press 
London: Cambridge University Press, Fetter Lane, E,C. 
Edinburgh: roo Princes Street 

19IS 

Price Sixpence net 






(2 

i 






INTRODUCTORY 

It is well understood by the pubKc that at the present time 
a rigorous economy in food is not only desirable on general 
grounds, but absolutely necessary to the success of this country 
in the task before it. ^ ■ 

, While all may have the wish to economise, many will feel 
the need of some guidance with regard to the lines upon which 
economy may be practised without injury to health. Some 
such guidance this pamphlet is intended to supply. 

A general economy in the use of food is clearly called for, 
since its practice will lead to what is now so greatly desirable, 
an appreciable increase in the current national savings. The 
country spends some £600,000,000 a year^ upon its food and 
a saving of one-tenth of this would be no mean item. But, 
further, since there is likely to be a serious shortage in particular 
foodstuffs, and especially in meat, a wise course of economy 
will include a serious endeavour to substitute the more plentiful 
for the less plentiful foods. There exists, it is true, a considera- 
tion of importance which somewhat comphcates the course of 
simple retrenchment; the necessity, namely, of giving first 
choice when possible to the foodstuffs which are produced at 
home, so that our indebtedness to other countries may grow 
no faster than is necessary during the war. On this point the 
Government must give the public guidance from time to time. 

Subject to the qualification just mentioned economy is 
clearly possible upon each of two lines. Less may be eaten, 
and foods which cost less may be substituted for those which 

^ Calculated at retail prices. 

1 



2 INTRODUCTORY 

cost more. But to each of these possible courses certain con- 
siderations must be apphed. It must be recognised, for example, 
that the first course, that of eating less, is not open to the whole 
nation. A proportion of the population, probably not less than 
a quarter of the whole, is already hmited by the smallness 
of its earnings to the consumption of a minimum.i/ But for a 
great number a lessened consumption of food (and especially of 
meat) is possible, and that without any danger to health. This 
apphes in particular, as will be later pointed out, to those who 
in the present crisis are not called upon to do strenuous physical 
work, be it in the field or in the factory. For those to whom 
such work is allotted, and for growing children, the nation must 
endeavour at whatever cost to maintain a generous food supply. 
To the application of the second method of economy — that of 
consuming the cheaper rather than the dearer foodstuffs — there 
are of course certain hmitations. It is clear, for instance, that 
if there were a greatly increased consumption of some one 
cheap foodstuff — say oatmeal for example— an increase in the 
price would check the economy attached to its use. On the 
other hand if the dearer forms of food were too rigidly avoided 
by those accustomed to consume them there would be a disloca- 
tion of the market which (for a period at any rate) might lead 
to wastage rather than to economy. A careful consideration 
of the domestic budgets of different classes of the community 
would suggest the following possibiUties. While the very poor 
cannot be expected to practise any appreciable economy at all, 
famihes in which the earning power reaches from 405. to 50s. 
a week can economise by more careful marketing, and by the 
replacement of a certain proportion of dear foodstuffs by an 
equivalent quantity of cheaper forms. The well-paid artisan 
class and the lower middle classes can save by a similar replace- 
ment carried out to a greater degree (and especially by lessening 
to some extent their consumption of meat), but also by an 
appreciable reduction in the total amount of food eaten. The 
well-to-do, without perhaps greatly altering the nature of what 
they eat, can increase their savings for national investment and 
conserve the supply of available foodstuffs by consuming con- 
siderably less. 



THE USES OF FOOD 3 

But to all classes, even to the wealthy, it is now more 
important than it would be under ordinary circumstances to 
watch the markets. If an article of food of which the price is 
falHng (or rising but slowly) be purchased rather than a similar 
or comparable article of which the price is quickly rising, the 
supply and consumption of our various foodstuffs will be more 
equably adjusted, and this circumstance will in itself make for 
national economy. 

But as we have said those who are prepared to make altera- 
tions in their consumption of food in order to conform with the 
urgent national needs of the moment may require information 
as to how far such alterations, whether of degree or of kind, 
can be made without danger to health and efficiency. Before 
presenting tables which are intended to show the relative cost 
of equivalent nutritive values when purchased in the form of 
different foods, we give therefore a brief account of the function 
of food in general and of the special importance of its individual 
constituents. 



II 

THE USES OF FOOD 

The two distinct Functions of Food: (1) as a Source 
OF Power, and (2) as Material for Repair 

The human body, though doubtless, in many of its aspects, 
something more than a mere machine, resembles the steam- 
engine in two respects. It calls for a constant supply of fuel, 
and, as a result of doing work, it suffers wear and tear. The 
body must burn fuel in order that the heat which it is always 
giving off may be continuously replaced; and it must burn 
still more fuel whenever it does work. From this necessity 
there is no escape. The body must also undergo repair, and 
if it is to remain healthy, its repair must keep pace with the 
wear and tear which it daily suffers. 

1—2 



4 FUEL REQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY 

It is of course the food eaten which provides each of these 
fundamental needs of the body, and, if we are to understand 
properly the nutrition of mankind, we must bear in mind the 
two distinct functions of food: its function as fuel and its 
function as repair material. Obviously, when we are considering 
the nutrition, not of the adult but of the young, we must 
remember that something more is required of the food ; it must 
supply material for growth and increase. 

Measurement of Requirements in Respect of Fuel. 

If information is available as to how much fuel and how 
much flesh-forming material are really necessary for the body 
under various conditions, it cannot fail to be a guide for economy 
in the use of foodstuffs. 

Some people may vaguely feel that the nutrition of complex 
Hving creatures must involve factors which are too subtle for 
measurement. They may cherish a doubt whether the needs of 
the human body can be definitely expressed in pounds and 
ounces or other such units. 

But there is no vagueness about our knowledge of the 
requirements of the body in respect of fuel. With suitable 
apparatus it is possible to measure with accuracy the total 
heat lost by the body of any individual in a given time. If the 
individual is doing work we can also measure, or calculate, the 
equivalent of that work in the form of extra heat lost by the 
body. Such measurements have been repeatedly made, with 
consistent results, upon individuals who during the investigation 
were resting, working moderately, or doing heavy work. It 
is clear that the least quantity of food which will serve the 
body under these various circumstances is that which will 
supply fuel to cover the loss of heat and the work-power 
expended. If less is suppHed, the body burns its own tissues 
and suffers loss of weight. How exactly are we to decide on 
accurate lines how much and what kind of food will contain 
the requisite value as fuel to prevent such loss? 

In the first place, we can burn the foodstuffs outside the body, 
treating them thus as actual fuel, and with proper apparatus 



FUEL REQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY 5 

determine exactly how much heat each kind of food will 
give out when completely burnt. This, of course, is a perfectly 
constant quantity for a given food, but varies greatly with 
different foodstuffs. A given weight of fat, for instance, gives 
out more than twice the heat yielded by the same weight of 
sugar or starch. 

Now when, in carefully conducted experiments, we are 
measuring the total heat lost by the body, and the heat value of 
the work it is doing, we can, at the same time, exactly determine 
the amount and kind of material which is being burnt in the 
body. On these lines we have arrived at the very important 
knowledge that food material burnt in the body produces just 
that amount of heat which it yields when burnt as actual fuel 
in a fire-grate or boiler furnace. The human body with all its 
subtleties has no power of extracting more than this. This is 
the justification — and it is a complete justification — for the 
quantitative statements concerning fuel values which occur in 
what follows, and which appear in the tables. But statements 
concerning quantities cannot be made without the use of some 
unit. The unit of fuel value usually chosen is known as a 
calorie. It represents the amount of heat which will raise the 
temperature of a kilogramme (about 2| lbs.) of water one degree 
centigrade. The layman from lack of familiarity can hardly 
grasp what this amounts to, in the sense that he can grasp the 
meaning of, say, a pound weight; but in comparing the fuel 
value of one foodstuff with that of another, there is no need to 
form a mental picture of the absolute value. When we are 
told that a pound of steak yields 1270 calories and a pound 
of oatmeal 1860 calories we understand that the latter yields 
nearly half as much again as the former. This kind of com- 
parison is all that is necessary. 

All the natural foods are in the main made up of four 
constituents, namely: fat, carbohydrate (starch or sugar), 
protein, and mineral salts. Of these the first three all have 
value as fuel. The mineral salts have no such value, though 
they must be eaten in order to maintain a proper store of 
mineral constituents in the body. Knowing as we do the 
exact fuel value of pure fat, starch, sugar, and protein, we might, 



6 PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS 

after chemical analysis, calculate the value of any given food- 
stuff, meat, or flour, or vegetable, but it is more satisfactory to 
determine it directly. All the values in the tables which follow 
have been so determined. 

We may now make a statement as to the actual requirements 
of individuals in respect of the fuel value of their food. It is 
clear that these will vary with the nature of the employment. 
They will also vary to some extent with the weight of the body. 
With regard to the latter factor we shall be content to give 
figures for average individuals with a body-weight of about 
11 stone. In speaking of hght muscular work we mean such 
as that done, for instance, by clerks, tailors, shopmen, and most 
professional men. Medium work is that done, for instance, by 
mechanics, porters, joiners or ordinary farm labourers. Heavy 
work would be represented by that of blacksmiths, dock 
labourers, soldiers in the field, etc. 





Fuel value required in 
calories per diem 


Sedentary occupations 


2500 


Light muscular work 


3000 


Medium muscular work 


3500 


Heavy muscular work 


4000 or more 



Exceptional employments, especially those which involve 
heavy work done rapidly, may call for quantities considerably 
in excess of the above. Women require on the average about 
four-fifths of the requirements of a man doing moderate work; 
a child of ten years wants from half to three-fifths, and a girl 
or boy of sixteen about seven-tenths of a man's ration. 
Growing children require always proportionately more than 
an adult. 

The Average Requirement for Flesh-forming Food. 

When we come to deal with the growth and repair of the 
body one particular constituent of foods becomes of special 
importance. Nine-tenths of the sohd matter of our flesh 
consist of protein, and in order to make flesh we must eat 
protein. This does not mean that we must obtain all we need 



PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS 7 

in the form of animal flesh, for vegetables also contain this 
important material. While everybody is perfectly familiar in 
a general way with the nature of the other chief foodstuffs — 
fats and starches — familiarity with the nature of proteins is 
perhaps less general. It will be sufficient to remember that 
they are the most prominent constituents of our muscles and 
our blood, and are contained in all tissues, animal or vegetable, 
that are living or have lived. What should at any rate be 
clearly understood is that they form highly necessary consti- 
tuents of our diet. It is not enough, as has already been pointed 
out, to supply the body with fuel ; the diet must at the same 
time contain enough protein for maintaining the repair of the 
working organs. 

It is usually taught that a man not engaged in heavy work 
requires about four ounces of protein in his daily food. Now 
this amount is contained in about 18 ounces of lean beefsteak, 
while to obtain the same amount wholly in the form of white 
bread we should have to eat 2f lbs. If we were depending 
upon potatoes alone nearly 9 lbs. would have to be eaten. 
Such figures illustrate the value of mixed dietaries. Potatoes 
alone would clearly be an unpleasantly bulky food, and so 
would many other vegetable foods if we had to rely upon them 
singly. On the other hand, lean meat alone would be equally 
unsatisfactory, for though the 18 ounces mentioned would 
supply the necessary flesh-forming material, something like 
5 lbs. would have to be eaten to supply the necessary fuel 
value. By combining foods rich in flesh-forming material with 
others proportionately rich in fuel value we can supply both 
needs of the body without eating undue amounts. There has 
been a tendency during recent years on the part of some 
authorities to claim that 4 ounces of protein is too much for ideal 
conditions of nutrition, and to suggest that a reduction would 
make for economy. If, however, any rational combination of 
ordinary natural foodstuffs is eaten, the consumption of enough 
material to supply the requisite fuel value will, because of the 
constitution of such foodstuffs, actually involve the simultaneous 
consumption of a quantity of protein which is never very much 
below the standard 4 ounces. An economical diet may indeed 



8 KEQUIREMENTS FOR HEAVY WORK 

contain as little as 3| to 3f ounces, but any attempt to reduce 
the protein much below this, and yet keep up a proper standard 
of fuel value, calls as a matter of fact for the addition of materials 
which are not economical. An individual duly provided with 
a supply of the commoner natural foodstuffs sufficient to main- 
tain his body temperature, and to enable him to work, is at 
any rate secure from the risk of a serious deficiency in flesh- 
forming material. 

The protein of vegetable foods is not so completely digested 
as that contained in animal foods, nor does it seem to be quite 
so suitable for repairing the working parts of the body. For 
these reasons the daily requirements of protein are somewhat 
higher than those stated above in cases where a large proportion 
of the protein eaten is in the form of vegetable foods. 

Special Properties of Meat Foods. The Requirements 
for Heavy Work. 

We have hitherto been thinking of the average conditions 
of life in this country. The existence of other conditions may 
considerably modify the desirable standard of protein con- 
sumption. Protein, in addition to its special flesh-forming 
powers, has one other property as a food which is scarcely 
shared by fats or starches. It directly increases the processes 
of combustion in the body, not so much because it is itself a 
fuel (it has indeed a fuel value no higher than that of starch 
and much less than that of fat) but because it directly stimulates 
combustion in the body. It makes so to speak the fires burn 
more brightly. 

It is thus desirable that protein, as well as the total fuel 
value, should be increased in the diet of those who have to 
suffer cold or exposure, and of those who have to do heavy 
work under stress. We have already pointed out, and it will 
be readily understood, that with increase of work there must 
be proportionate increase in the food consumed. But there 
is a further point which needs emphasis in this connection. 
A man taking only so much food as will just cover the work 
he has to do must perform the work slowly. He must be, as it 



REQUIREMENTS FOR SEDENTARY LIFE 9 

were, economical in his movements. Such, for example, is the 
usual condition of ill-paid labourers whose food amounts to the 
bare minimum. The man who has to work rapidly and be 
prepared for sudden and severe calls upon his energy needs a 
larger margin in his food supply. He should be always like 
a steam-engine with full steam up. To such a condition of the 
body a good sufficiency of protein undoubtedly contributes. 
Other foods may be, and are, good fuel for the muscles, but a 
generous consumption of protein secures that the maximum 
muscular power shall be always and quickly available. Such 
protein is most readily obtained in the concentrated form of 
meat. During exposure to cold protein has again a special 
function because of its power to quicken combustion in the 
body. The Eskimo eats much fat as a source of body-heat; 
but only when he has eaten, as he usually does, a large amount 
of protein also, can he perform such a feat as sleeping without 
cover in spite of the rigor of his climate. This he frequently 
does with impunity when well stuffed with seal flesh. In 
winter it is especially desirable that troops in the field shall 
receive a good supply of meat as well as abundance of other 
foods. 



The Requirements of a Sedentary Life. 

The moral of what has been said in the last section is that 
during such a crisis as is involved in war the civil population, 
and especially that part of it which leads a sedentary Hfe, or 
follows pursuits which do not necessarily call for physical 
activity, should, if there be any danger of shortage, eat meat 
sparingly in order that soldiers in the field and workmen en- 
gaged in strenuous physical labour for national ends should be 
in no danger of a deficiency. Meat certainly has, as we have 
already stated, special stimulating properties which, in its 
absence, are missed by those accustomed to it. But in so far 
as these properties are valuable to health their effect can be 
sufficiently obtained with a comparatively small daily con- 
sumption, while the main supply of protein as well as of fuel 
food can be eaten in cheaper forms. The necessary minimum 

1—5 



10 REQUIREMENTS FOR SEDENTARY LIFE 

of protein may be obtained, as the tables in this pamphlet 
abundantly show, at a startlingly less cost in foodstuffs other 
than meat. • Thus while one pound of protein costs five or six 
shilhngs in the form of beef, it costs only b^d. when purchased 
in bread, Sd. in oatmeal, and Qd. in such vegetables as peas. 
If it be true that individual vegetable proteins are somewhat 
less valuable to the body than meat proteins, the difference 
largely disappears when the vegetable foods are eaten in com- 
binations, and in suflS.cient variety. 

Apart from saving in meat it is easy and safe for those who 
have no special calls for physical endeavour, and they still 
form a large proportion of the population, to eat less altogether. 
Many people in making a substantial reduction in their food 
will only be bringing their consumption down to a normal and 
healthy level. But should unforeseen difficulties arise in 
connection with the national food supply it is possible for 
individuals to go further than this without actual danger to 
themselves. Many modern investigators have shown indeed 
that the consumption of protein may, at least for several 
months, be reduced from the normal 4 ounces to 2 ounces, and 
the total consumption of food reduced by a third or more 
without any obvious effect upon the health. Such facts are 
not to be appHed to the fighter or the strenuous worker, and 
the need for such a reduction as this is not hkely to arise for 
anybody in this country. But those of whom a much smaller 
economy is asked at the present juncture may well bear these 
facts in mind. Normal food consumption in this country, if 
that of the poorest classes be excepted, leaves a good margin 
to draw upon before the hmits of safety are reached. Even 
if abstinence calls for some effort, and causes some discomfort, 
the effort will be for a period only, and the discomfort is after 
all soon forgotten. Intellectual activity, it should be under- 
stood, makes very small demands upon food. 

Those who reduce their consumption of food should perhaps 
be advised to lessen the amount of exercise taken for pleasure. 
This is a suggestion which will not be welcomed by the 
majority, but it should be understood that, with many, the 
need felt for constant exercise is in part due to the fact that the 



NEED FOR NATURAL FOODSTUFFS 11 

food eaten is in excess of what, without the exercise, would 
cover the needs of the body. 

The Need for Natural Foodstuffs. 

One further point must be touched upon. A healthy 
dietary, whether for workers or non-workers, should contain 
always a fair proportion of natural foodstuffs which have 
undergone no artificial treatment. White bread, polished rice, 
condensed milk, and "separated" patent foods may be quite 
satisfactory sources of protein and energy. They are perfectly 
wholesome if they do not form too large a proportion of the 
total food eaten ; but the treatment they have received results 
in a deficiency in certain essential properties, and they must 
be supplemented by other foodstuffs ; if not by meat, then by 
fresh vegetables, whole grain foods, fresh milk, eggs, etc. 
Lastly, the occasional consumption of uncooked foods is 
important for health, and in times of scarcity it is better to 
sacrifice something in the total quantity eaten rather than to 
dispense altogether with such accessories as fresh fruit and 
salads. 



Ill 

TABLE OF FOOD VALUES AND THEIR COST AS 
BOUGHT IN DIFFERENT FOODSTUFFS 

In the preceding pages it has been shown that the food 
must supply every day a certain amount of protein, about 
4 oz. per day for a full grown man. In these times of war when 
economy is so desirable it is important to know the cost of 
everything we buy, so we will calculate the cost of protein in 
several common articles of food. The calculation is not quite 
a simple matter for no common feeding stuff owes its value to 
protein alone. How this difficulty can be surmounted a few 
examples will show. 

1—6 



12 COMPOSITION AND COST OF FOODS 

The cheapest cuts of beef nowadays cost lOd. per lb. From 
the average of pubHshed analyses it appears that they contain 
as purchased about 15 per cent, of waste and 50 per cent, of 
water. Neither of these constituents has any definite value 
though a careful housekeeper will probably utilize the waste 
for making soup or gravy. The two constituents for which we 
buy the beef are protein of which there is present on the average 
15 per cent., and fat of which the beef contains on the average 
14 per cent. 

To find the cost of the protein we must subtract from the 
whole cost of the meat the value of the fat, which we can find 
from the price of suet and lard which contain practically fat 
and nothing else of value. Suet containing 80 per cent, of fat 
costs 8d. per lb. and lard containing 95 per cent, of fat costs 
about lOd. per lb. Fat therefore costs about one-tenth of a 
penny per one -hundredth of a pound. A pound of the beef 
we are dealing with contains fourteen-hundredths of a pound 
of fat which is worth fourteen-tenths of a penny or almost 
exactly l^d. Subtracting this sum from lOd., the cost of the 
pound of beef, we get S^d. as the cost of the 15 per cent, of 
protein, from which it appears that 1 lb. of beef protein costs 
4s. 9d. 

In the case of milk the calculation is still more complicated 
for milk contains sugar as well as protein and fat. It is quite 
easy however to allow for the value of the sugar, for we know 
that ordinary sugar at the present time costs 3^. per lb. which 
makes the price of one-hundredth of a pound three-hundredths 
of a penny. The retail price of milk as the housekeeper buys 
it is 2d. per pint which is almost exactly l^d. per lb. Milk 
contains on the average 87| per cent, of water, 3| per cent, of 
protein, 3^ per cent, of fat and 4 per cent, of sugar. The fat 
and the sugar together are worth 47 hundredths of a penny or 
almost exactly ^d., which leaves Id. as the cost of the 3| per 
cent, of protein. Milk protein therefore costs per lb. 2s. i^d. 
or exactly half as much as beef protein. 

These calculations serve to show how we have arrived at 
the cost of a pound of protein in all the common foodstuffs. 
The results are given in the third column of the following table. 



COMPOSITION AND COST OF FOODS 13 

The fourth column shows the value of 1 lb. of each foodstuff 
considered as fuel. It illustrates the relative abiHty of different 
foods to yield heat and work in the body. The fifth column 
shows the relative cost of such fuel as bought in different foods. 
For convenience we have calculated this in terms of 1000 
calories on which basis one food can be compared with another. 
This comparison of relative cheapness or dearness is the only 
point that matters in practice. 

It will be of course understood that in using the table 
combinations have to be thought of. One food may be a cheap 
source of protein, quite another a cheap source of fuel. It 
must be remembered that each adult requires every day about 
3000 calories, and the supply of this must be so selected as to 
give him at the same time from 3| to 4 ounces of protein. 

One more point in explanation of the tables. The figures 
all refer to the foods as purchased. For instance potatoes are 
bought at Id. per pound. Before they are cooked they are 
usually peeled and the eyes and other defects are removed. 
This causes some waste. But as one intention of this little 
book is to help people to buy, the amount of protein and the 
number of calories are given in the potato in the condition in 
which it is bought and not in the potato peeled ready for 
cooking. 

In the case of articles which are sold at per head and not 
per lb., we have bought several and weighed them, working 
out from the weight and price per head the price per lb. 

We have taken some trouble to ascertain the latest average 
war prices per lb. of all the articles mentioned in the tables. 
We do not fail to recognize that some may be open to 
criticism. Prices vary rapidly in these times, from day to 
day and from place to place. The differences in price per lb. 
of protein and per 1000 calories are however so great that con- 
siderable variations of price do not affect the lessons shown by 
the tables. Also where the local price varies from that stated, 
the price per 1000 calories can be calculated at once by multi- 
plying the price per lb. by 1000 and dividing the product by 
the number of calories per lb. as stated in column 4. 

The prices given are as a rule the average prices at which 



14 



FOOD TABLES 



small quantities can be bought in Cambridge. The keen 
marketer or the contractor for large quantities may be able to 
buy to greater advantage. 



Price 

Kame of food pei lb. 

Butcher^s meat s. d. 

Beef, cheaper cuts 10 

„ sirloin 1 2 

„ rump steak 1 6 

„ heart 8 

„ liver 6| 

„ tripe 8 

Veal, breast 10 

„ loin 1 3 

„ cutlets 1 8 

Calf s Uver 1 3 

Mutton, neck, scrag end 10 

leg 1 2 

„ chops 1 3 

Lamb, breast Oil 

„ shoulder 1 2 

„ leg 1 3 

Sheep's heart 6 

„ liver 1 2 

„ head 2 

Pork, leg 1 

„ loin 1 2 

„ sausage Oil 

Poultry 

Chicken 1 9 

Fowl 1 3 

Preserved meats 

Ham 1 1 

Bacon 1 2 

Corned beef 1 

Tinned tongue 2 

Dairy products 

New milk (per pint) 2 

Separated milk (per pint) .... 0| 
Condensed milks: 

Whole sweetened (per tin, Qd.) 6 J 

( „ 5d.) 5i 

Skimmed ( „ 4d.) 4 J 



Oz. 

protein 
in 1 lb. 


Cost of 

lib. 
protein 


Calories 
per lb. 


Cost 
per 1000 
calories 


oz. 


S. 


d. 


calories 


s. d. 


2| 


4 


9 


1006 


10 


2h 


6 


5 


1108 


1 1 


H 


6 


7 


1110 


1 H 


^ 


3 


6 


1320 


6 


3i- 


2 


6 


555 


111 


— 




- 


955 


8J 


21 


5 





750 


1 14 


2| 


5 


11 


690 


1 7 


H 


8 





690 


2 5 


3 


6 


4 


575 


2 2 


2 


5 


7 


1055 


9i 


2i 


7 





900 


1 3^ 


2 


7 


8 


1575 


9i 


n 


5 





1090 


10 


2i 


6 


10 


1265 


10 


2* 


6 


9 


1130 


1 1 


2f 


2 


5 


845 


7 


H 


4 


9 


905 


1 3i 


H 


1 


41 


290 


7 


2i 


5 


8 


1345 


9 


2 


7 


4 


1340 


10| 


2 


4 


2 


2125 


5i 


2 


13 


4 


295 


6 


2i 


8 


4 


775 


1 8 


2i 


5 


10 


1670 


7| 


1* 


7 


5 


2685 


5i 


2i 


3 


■21 


1280 


9i 


3i 


9 


5 


1340 


1 6 


1 


2 


4* 


406 


4| 


i 





7 


212 


1 3 


H 


5 


6 


1618 


4 


^ 


5 





1680 


3i 


n 


3 


9 


1252 


3i 



FOOD TABLES 



15 



Oz. Coat of Cost 

Price protein 1 lb. Calories per 1000 

Name of food per lb. in 1 lb. protein per lb. calories 

s. d. oz. s. d. calories s. d. 

Cheese, Cheddar 10 4| 2 6 2055 6 

curd 3 2 1 10 445 6J 

half cream 8^ 2 4 2 1159 7^ 

Fresh eggs, Ihd. each (8 eggs 

weigh 1 lb. f. 10 2 7 635 1 6| 

Fresh fish 

Lobster 16 1 25 140 10 9 

Salmon 2 6 2| 13 5 935 2 9 

Hake 10 IJ 12 150 5 6 

Halibut 16 2J 9 9 740 3 2 

Haddock 8 IJ 8 4 165 4 1 

Mackerel 8 U 6 3 365 1 10 

Cod 10 2| 5 335 2 6 

Herring 3^ 1| 2 7 375 9^ 

Preserved fish 

Tinned salmon 14 3i 6 4 680 2 

Tinned lobster 2 3 12 6 390 5 2 

Frozen salmon 13 — — — — 

Smoked haddock 8 2J 4 2 305 2 2 

Smoked codling 6 2^ 3 4 365 — 

Kippers 8 3i 2 11 750 10| 

Sardines in oil 2 3| 12 950 2 1 

Fried fish 5i 2-1 2 1 1000 5^ 

Vegetable foods 

Bread 2 1^ SJ 1225 If 

Oatcake, home made 03 2 03 1840 If 

Oatmeal 3 2| 3 1860 If 

Dried peas 3 4^ 6 1655 If 

Dried beans 4 3f 9 1605 2^ 

Lentils 4 4i 10 1620 2^ 

Macaroni 6 2 2 7 1665 3^ 

Rice 2J li 6i 1630 1^ 

Sago 4 H 1 10 1635 2^ 

Cereal breakfast foods 11 2 6 10 1700 7| 

Flour 21 If 4| 1650 IJ 

Nuts 

BrazU nuts 7 11 3 4 1655 4^ 

Filberts 10 IJ 7 6 1575 6^ 

Chestnuts 2 IJ 3 945 2 

Pea nuts 3 4 — * 2353 IJ 

Almonds 2 If 15 6 1660 1 2| 

* Valuing the fat in pea nuts at ^th of a penny per one per cent, per 
lb., the protein costs nothing. 



16 



FOOD TABLES 



Name of food 
Fresh vegetables 



Price 
per lb. 



Oz. Cost of 
protein 1 lb. 
in lib. protein 



Cost 
Calories per 1000 
per lb. calories 



s. d. 

Potatoes 0| 

Green peas 5 

Carrots Of 

Turnips Of 

Brussels sprouts \^ 

Artichokes IJ 

Beetroot 1 

Cabbage IJ 

Cauliflower 1^ 

Celery 1 

Leeks U 

Onions 1 

Spinach 2i 



oz. 
Oi 
1 
Of 

oi 
Oi 

Oi 

oi 

Oi 
Oi 
Oi 
0* 
Oi 
Oi 



s. d. 
7i 
5 1 



5 
5 
5 
2 

5 

6 
6 
8 
11 
4 
9 



calories 
310 
465 
160 
125 

'so 

365 
170 
125 
140 
70 
130 
205 
110 



5. d. 

l\ 

10 

4f 

6 

1 4 

u 

e' 

10 

11 

1 2 

7f 

5 

1 11 



Foods containing very little protein 

Calories Cost per 

Name of food Price per lb. per lb. 1000 calories 

Fatty foods s. d. calories s. d. 

Butter 1 6 3605 5 

Lard 10 4010 2^ 

Suet 8 3540 2i 

Margarine 6 3525 If 

Dripping 6 4000 IJ 

Cream 12 910 1 ^ 

Starchy foods 

Tapioca 5 1650 3i 

Arrowroot 1\ 1815 4i 

Cornflour 4 1645 2\ 

Pearl barley 2f 1650 If 

Sugar 4 1860 2i 

Jam 5 1400 3J 

Treacle 04 — 

Dried fruits 

Figs 5 1475 3i 

Prunes 6 1190 5 

Dates 4 1450 2f 

Raisins 6 1445 4i 

Apricots 9 1290 7 

Apples 7 1350 5i 

The analytical data from which the above table was constructed were 

mainly obtained from American sources {Bulletin No. 28, U.S. Dept. of 

Agriculture, Washington), but in the case of many of the items we have our- 
selves determined the protein and calories present. 



DISCUSSION OF TABLES 17 

No one can look through the above table without admitting 
at once that it contains much useful information. It is of 
course impossible to mention in detail every food given in the 
table. Nor is this necessary, for the foods fall naturally into 
classes. In the form of fresh butcher's meat 1 lb. of protein 
costs from 5 to 8 shilUngs. There are a few exceptions. 
Chicken is a very expensive source of protein. The cheapest 
source of fresh meat protein is beef's heart or liver. Neither 
of these articles can however be bought in considerable 
quantities, nor are they likely to be very desirable as staple 
articles of diet. They are to be regarded as economical sources 
of fresh animal protein for occasional use as a change. 

Among preserved meats corned beef is a cheap source of 
animal protein but in using it the housekeeper must not forget 
that preserved foods lack something which fresh foods contain. 
It is hkely to be quite satisfactory if used in conjunction with 
fresh vegetables or salads. 

New milk and cheese are very cheap sources of animal 
protein. Their protein costs only about 2s. 6d. per pound or 
about half as much as the protein of fresh butcher's meat, and 
as far as we know milk protein is as good as the protein of fresh 
beef, mutton or any other form of fresh meat. The use of 
milk and its products is to be recommended, but it must not 
be forgotten that butter contains practically no protein. The 
protein of fresh eggs costs about as much as the protein of 
fresh meat. 

There can be no doubt that vegetable foods are far the 
cheapest source of protein. In such common foods as bread, 
oatmeal, and dried peas and beans the protein costs only from 
3d. to 9d. per pound, which is only about as many pence per 
pound as fresh meat protein costs shilhngs. In other words 
a penny buys as much protein in the form of oatmeal or dried 
peas as a shilling buys in beef or mutton. It would probably 
be inadvisable for people who are accustomed to a diet con- 
taining a great deal of meat to take all their protein in the form 
of vegetables, but there is no doubt that a considerable part of 
the meat usually eaten could be replaced by beans, peas, lentils, 
oatmeal and such vegetable foods rich in protein without risk 

1—9 



18 PRICE AND VALUE 

to health and with very considerable economy. For instance, 
an ordinary man, as we have seen, eats about 4 oz. of protein 
per day. In the form of fresh meat this costs at present prices 
about Is. 3d. to Is. 9d., say Is. Qd. A heavy meat diet might 
very well be replaced by one in which 1 oz. of protein was taken 
as fresh meat, 1 oz. of protein as milk and 2 oz. as oatmeal, 
beans or peas. This would cost at present prices i^d. + 2d. + ^d. 
or 7 Id., a very great saving on the cost of a diet in which nearly 
all the protein is supphed as meat. 

The purchaser may at times be glad to know whether in 
buying a more costly rather than a cheaper variety of a given 
f oodstufi he is obtaining a proportionate increase in actual food 
value. 

Groceries, for instance, are usually offered for sale in various 
quahties, the prices of which differ considerably. In order to 
find out if the quality depended on real food value or on appear- 
ance we have analysed a number of samples with the following 
results : 

Price Per cent. Calories Cost of 

Article per lb. protein per lb. 1000 calories 

5. d. d. 

Rice 2 7-4 1664 IJ 

.„ 3 6-0 1665 1| 

„ 5 80 1702 3 

Oatmeal 

Aberdeen 2i 13-8 1986 1| 

Midlothian 3 13-6 1992 1^ 

Proprietary 3^ — 1900 If 

Tapioca 4 0-22 1620 2i 

, „ 5 0-15 1595 3 

Cornflour 

"Genuine" 4 0-40 1635 2h 

Proprietary 6 0-35 1632 3f 

Prepared cereals 

Breakfast food 11 9-4 1760 7^ 

, 1 1 10-0 1761 7| 

The figures are instructive. The most striking results are 
those giving the composition of three quahties of rice. The 
price varies from 2d. per lb. to 5d. per lb., but the composition 
of all three samples is almost identical, especially as regards 



PRICE AND VALUE 19 

the fuel value per lb. In working out the cost of 1000 calories 
in each of the three samples from the price and the fuel 
value per lb., the figures in the last column are obtained — from 
which it appears that the cost of 1000 calories varies from l^d. 
to 3d. For actual value obtained therefore the rice at 5d. per lb. 
is more than three times as expensive as the sample at 2d. 
per lb. 

On trial the three samples were found to differ very slightly 
in ease of cooking. Their only real difference is in appearance. 
There can be no manner of doubt that the cheapest rice is the 
most economical. 

In the case of the oatmeals the results are not so striking. 
The figures show practically no variation in composition, though 
the price varies from 2|(^. to S^d. and the cost of 1000 calories 
from l^d. to l^d. Again the cheaper oatmeal is the more 
economical. 

The two samples of tapioca show exactly the same results. 
The dearer sample was certainly whiter in appearance, but the 
composition is practically identical. The extra Id. per lb. is 
charged for appearance only. 

The two samples of cornflour are also instructive. The 
proprietary preparation costs an extra 2d. per lb., in this case 
for the name only, for both appearance and composition are 
almost identical. 

Altogether the results teach a very clear lesson, that the 
great variation in price of many articles of food is due rather 
to appearance or reputation than to variation in actual food 
value, and that it is therefore in most cases the cheaper article 
which gives the better value for the money expended. 

A word may be added about the various prepared "cereal 
breakfast foods" as they are called. Two different kinds have 
been analysed, both giving practically the same results, which 
work out at l^d. per 1000 calories. This is five times as dear 
as oatmeal and more than twice as dear as other foods of the 
same class. A point in their favour is their convenience. They 
are ready cooked and can be used without further preparation, 
but this can hardly be regarded as an adequate set off against 
so great a disparity in price. 



20 BUTCHER'S MEAT 

Finally we give the figures for home-made oatcake which 
can be made at 3d. per lb. 

In the next section we discuss in more detail the nutritive 
value and the cost of certain of the more important individual 
foods. 



IV 

NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL FOODSTUFFS 

Bvicher's Meat. 

The cost of a given quantity of protein, though it differs 

greatly when prime joints or cuts are compared with cheaper 

cuts, does not vary very much on the average with the nature 

of the animal from which it is derived. Economy does not at 

present limit our choice as between beef, mutton, pork, etc. 

Whether or not it is desirable for a community wishing to 

economise to purchase the meat of immature animals — to eat, 

for instance, lamb or veal instead of mutton or beef — is a 

somewhat complicated question depending upon the current 

cost of fodder and other factors; the assumption that it is 

necessarily undesirable is by no means justified. We may 

assume that all meats will tend to rise in price so long as the 

war lasts ; but the rise may not be uniform. Perhaps the best 

guide for the consumer who wishes at the present time to put 

economy before the satisfaction of personal taste is to buy 

whatever variety of meat is at the moment rising most slowly 

in price; and this not so much on account of the immediate 

and direct saving involved, which may be small, but because 

of the assistance which such a course, if widely adopted, would 

give to the adjustment between supply and demand. On the 

other hand it is undesirable that the well-to-do should economise 

too freely by the unaccustomed purchase of what are held to 

be inferior parts of the animal ; otherwise the poor may suffer 

by a rise in their price. Apart from the less prized "cuts" 

reference to the tables will show that protein is particularly 



FISH 21 

cheap when purchased in such forms as hver, sheeps' or beef's 
hearts ; in sheeps' heads, tripe, black puddings, etc. 

A word may be said as to the economic difference between 
fat and lean meats. Increase in the amount of fat proportion- 
ately reduces, of course, the amount of protein purchased in 
a pound of meat, but the fuel value rises rapidly with the richness 
in fat. As a matter of fact reasonably fat meat is a more 
economical purchase than lean meat, because fat replaces 
water. Lean flesh with 1-5 per cent, fat contains no less than 
76 per cent, of water ; meat with 29 per cent, fat contains only 
53 per cent. So long as the fat is not left upon the family 
plates, but is actually eaten, whether with the meat itself or 
later in the form of dripping, etc., more total food value is 
obtained for a shilling in fat meat than in lean. Moreover the 
net cost of the protein in the former is not increased proportion- 
ately with its degree of replacement by fat. It should be 
remembered however that in most households there is a tendency 
to waste fat. It is clear that very fat meat should be supple- 
mented by foods rich in protein, and lean meat with others 
proportionately rich in fuel value. Beans and bacon ; leg of 
mutton and potatoes; these are time-honoured and justifiable 
combinations. 



Fish. 

Fresh fish, largely owing to cost of transport, is never a 
cheap source either of protein or fuel, as a glance at the tables 
will show. Even the less expensive forms, sometimes — as in 
the case of hake — because of the large proportion of water 
contained in the flesh, do not compare favourably with meat 
in this respect. Fish as a whole is chiefly valuable in adding 
variety to a dietary. 

Dried or smoked fish are of course much cheaper foodstuffs 
but it is doubtful if they should contribute more than a small 
quota to any dietary. Tinned salmon and lobster, though 
largely bought by the poor, are extravagant foods. 



22 DAIRY PRODUCTS 



Dairy Products, 

A study of the tables will show that among animal foods 
milk is an exceptionally cheap source both of protein and of 
fuel. A pound of protein in meat costs five or six shillings 
while the same amount in milk at twopence a pint costs only 
two shilHngs and fourpence. One thousand calories cost on 
the average about one shilhng in meat but only fourpence 
three-farthings in milk. So great a disproportion is a somewhat 
surprising circumstance of no small economic interest. The 
protein in skim milk costs only sevenpence a pound. It is 
extremely unfortunate that this is not more readily obtainable 
by the pubhc. While whole milk is essential for infants, skim 
milk is a most useful food for growing children who are getting 
a supply of fat from other sources. It is especially desirable as 
a food for the children of the poor who else depend far too 
much upon bread and margarine. The extreme cheapness of 
skim milk protein has led to its appearance in the market, 
under various names, as a dry powder. But in these proprietary 
articles its cost is greatly increased, and its digestibiUty is 
lessened. It is cost of transport which results in skim milk 
being left to the pigs, and it seems highly desirable that during 
the present crisis at any rate some effort should be made to 
cheapen its distribution. The pubhc should certainly purchase, 
and encourage the manufacture in this country of, the simple 
curd cheeses which are made from skim milk ; they are whole- 
some and cheap sources of protein. 

Condensed milk because of its great convenience is ahvays 
likely to be freely consumed ; but it should be understood that 
the cost of the protein obtained in it is more than double that 
of the same quantity purchased in new milk. The calories 
contained in it are relatively cheap, but this is because they are 
largely due to the added sugar. Condensed milk does not 
represent an economical food. It should never replace new 
milk in the diet of infants or young children. 



EGGS, BREAD AND FLOUR 23 

Eggs. 

Eggs form a source of convenient and agreeable food, but 
it should be remembered that at the price usually paid for them 
in this country they are a somewhat extravagant food. New 
milk yields corresponding food value at less than one- third the 
cost. 

Bread and Flour. 

It need hardly be said that those who are able to bake at 
home can obtain similar food values at a lower cost in the 
form of flour than in that of bread. But from this saving the 
cost of baking has of course to be deducted, and home baking, 
though its adoption may in individual cases help to conserve 
a diminishing income, cannot be universally recommended. 
The baker can make bread more economically and efficiently 
than private individuals and his activities represent a division 
of labour which, on the balance, is of advantage to the com- 
munity under any circumstances. 

A decrease in the consumption of meat almost necessarily 
involves an increase in the consumption of wheat bread, so 
that the properties of the latter as a foodstuff have an increasing 
interest at the present time. When a given amount of fuel is 
consumed in bread the amount of protein received will very 
nearly reach what is a desirable ratio, and from this standpoint 
bread is a satisfactory basal foodstufi. But it is deficient in 
fat; a circumstance which accounts for the universal and 
instinctive use of fat as an adjunct to bread. In the diet of 
the labouring classes, both in town and country, nearly two- 
thirds of the whole fuel value and one-half of the protein is 
supplied in bread. With increase of earning power the relative 
amount of bread eaten almost always diminishes, and in middle 
class dietaries it usually supplies no more than one-fourth of 
the calories and one-fifth of the protein. It is clear that no 
serious harm could accrue to the latter classes if, as a temporary 
measure, a part of their meat consumption were replaced by 
bread. When bread comes to form a relatively large portion 
of the total food eaten, it is desirable that a part at least should 



24 OATMEAL 

be made from whole meal. Not enough advantage is taken in 
this country of the fact that bread may be eaten in a variety 
of forms with varying flavours. To vary the source, colour 
and size of the loaf adds to the enjoyment with which bread 
may be eaten. 

Oatmeal. 

Oatmeal contains more protein and more fat than wheat 
flour, and should be recognised as being at once one of the 
cheapest and most valuable of foodstuffs. Although it appears 
in the food budgets of most famihes, the quantity consumed 
per head in South Britain is relatively very small. Among the 
working classes the expenditure upon it does not amount to 
one-tw^entieth of that upon bread. This proportion might 
under any circumstances be increased with definite advantage, 
especially to the children. Oatmeal porridge is, of course, a 
common breakfast dish among the wealthier classes, but the 
actual amount eaten in this form is but small, not more than 
perhaps 1 ounce per head per day of the dry meal. This in 
fuel value would represent less than one-twentieth of the 
day's consumption. 
\ / During a period of meat shortage it is necessary that the 
consumption of cereal foods should increase. It is highly 
desirable that this increase should not be too exclusively in the 
form of bread. There is a real advantage in eating a variety 
of cereals rather than one only, and oatmeal represents perhaps 
the best variant from wheat bread. It can be obtained in 
more than one form, and may be prepared in various ways, so 
that monotony can be easily avoided if some trouble be taken. 

Oatcake for instance forms a pleasant and valuable variation 
from porridge. It is readily made by melting an ounce of 
margarine in rather more than \ pint of hot water and mixing 
with I lb. of oatmeal. The dough is well worked, and rolled 
into a flat cake and baked. Thus prepared it costs just over 
M. per lb., which works out at about \\d. per 1000 calories. 

We have been told officially that a reduction in the amount 
of meat eaten to the extent of some 2 lbs. per head per month 
will cover the probable shortage of the current year. Supposing 



PULSES AND RICE 25 

this sacrifice to be made it is somewhat striking to reahse that 
the whole of the flesh-forming material involved could be re- 
placed by the consumption of a small plate of oatmeal porridge 
extra each day, and the exchange would increase the peld of 
energy from the food. If the individual takes a gill of milk with 
this daily extra ration of oatmeal he will get altogether twice 
as much protein as he is asked to give up, and a considerable 
increase in total food values. The meat sacrificed would have 
cost at least 2s., while the oatmeal costs 5d. or Qd.. and the 
oatmeal and milk l.s. 8d. to Is. 9d. 

Beans, Peas and Lentils. 

These foods differ from the cereals in that they contain 
far more protein, in fact they actually contain more protein 
weight for weight than butcher's meat. They also contain 
large quantities of starch and their price being low they are 
among the cheapest sources of both protein and energy. 
Unfortunately they are inclined to be diSicult of digestion 
unless very thoroughly cooked. Soaking over night in cold 
water shortens the time of boiling. Being rich in protein and 
starch and deficient in fat they go well with fat meats such as 
pork or bacon. They may be curried along with enough fat 
meat to give a flavour. 

Rice. 

As is well known rice forms the chief food of whole popula- 
tions in the East. Of late years evidence has accumulated to 
show that the process of "polishing" removes certain essential 
properties from the grain, so that pohshed rice is not a good 
basal foodstuff. But although the grain as sold in this country 
is almost always polished, the deficiency is quite unimportant 
when the rice forms only a small part of the whole diet. Rice 
yields a very economical supply of protein and of calories. 
Like oatmeal it provides an opportunity of increasing variety 
in our consumption of grain foods, and at the present time 
decidedly more should be eaten. Its use should be less confined 



26 STARCHES. VEGETABLES 

to the preparation of sweet puddings, and boiled rice should be 
served more freely with meat and fish. Cooked with cheese 
like macaroni, it makes a very cheap and nutritious dish, which 
is also extremely palatable. 



Tafioca, Arrowroot, Cornflour. 

It should be understood that foods of this class, though 
they possess high fuel value, supply scarcely any protein. 
They are often given to invahds under the impression that they 
possess high restorative power, but they possess no flesh- 
forming properties and they should never form a large pro- 
portion of the day's food. 

Fresh Vegetables. 

When bought in small quantities fresh vegetables are not 
economical as a source of protein and energy. This apphes to 
green vegetables especially, the reason being that they contain 
about nine-tenths of their weight of water which of course 
makes the cost of transport to the market come out high per 
pound of protein and per 1000 calories. For the same reason 
they are very bulky and on this account it would be difficult 
to take any very large proportion of one's protein and energy 
in this form. For instance, it would be necessary to eat more 
than one stone of most green vegetables in order to get the 
4 oz, of protein which is required for the daily ration of an 
average man. 

Potatoes however are an exception. They contain much less 
water, and much more dry matter than green vegetables, and 
cost less money per pound. They are in fact one of the cheapest 
sources of energy and at the present time their consumption 
in this country should be increased. The proportion of protein 
which they contain however is small, and they should be eaten 
with meat, milk, cheese or some other article containing protein 
in reasonable proportions. Artichokes are also a fairly cheap 
source of energy, and so are carrots, turnips and onions. 



FOOD BUDGETS 27 

These remarks must not be taken as a warning against the 
purchase of fresh vegetables. It is in fact desirable that every 
one should eat green vegetables from time to time, not as a 
source of protein or energy, but to ensure health. For the 
same reason every one should occasionally eat salad or uncooked 
fruit. Such materials do not provide cheap protein or energy, 
but they do undoubtedly help to keep the body in a healthy 
condition. 

V 

FOOD BUDGETS 

We propose in this section to illustrate certain aspects of 
the subject by a reference to the expenditure of typical famihes 
upon their food as observed in actual practice. The careful 
studies of Mr S. B. Rowntree supply statistical material of a 
kind suitable for our purpose. 

In 1912-13 Mr Rowntree obtained accurate information 
concerning the food budgets of 42 famihes of rural workers in 
five Enghsh counties. They comprised in all 85 adults and 
194 children, the average number of children in a family being 
therefore between four and five. 

Suitable calculations show that the food consumed by these 
famihes corresponded with what would be an allowance of 
3400 calories and 95 grammes (3-4 ounces) of protein for a 
mani. These figures are strikingly close to those calculated 
by one of us from the results of a Board of Trade return made 
in 1902 which dealt with the food of agricultural labourers in 
all parts of England, namely 3357 calories and 97 grammes 
(3-5 ounces) of protein per man. Such figures show a fairly 
adequate, though by no means generous, allowance of fuel 

^ See page 6. Since the number and age of the members vary it is 
necessary in comparing the expenditure of one family with that of another to 
reduce them to some common standard. This is usually done by counting a 
woman's needs as eight-tenths of a man's, and by assigning a definite fractional 
value to the needs of each child according to its age. Thus a family with 
father, mother, and six children might work out as equal, say, to four and 
three-quarter men. The total food consumed divided by 4| would then give 
the consumption "per man.'" 



28 FOOD BUDGETS 

value, but an amount of protein which, for conditions of life 
in this country, is too small. 

We have calculated from Mr Rowntree's data that the 
average earning power of the families studied was sixteen 
shillings and sixpence per household weekly. The average 
weekly expenditure upon food was twelve shillings. This sum 
did not quite suffice to purchase the food values mentioned, as 
in nearly all cases the food bought was supplemented by a 
certain amount (never large) of home-raised garden produce, 
and, to a small extent, by charitable gifts. In the case of 
agricultural labourers it is at any rate clear that an expenditure 
of more than seventy per cent, of the total cash income upon 
food did not, even before the war, suffice to buy more than at 
most the bare necessary minimum. The Board of Trade returns 
of 1904 gave for town workers in all parts of the country a 
consumption of 3291 calories and 102 grammes (3-6 ounces) of 
protein per man. But the poorer elements in a town population 
may show conditions of nutrition considerably less satisfactory 
than those of the agricultural labourer. Thus Mr Rowntree 
found that fourteen families in York of which the average 
income was less than 26s. per week showed an average con- 
sumption of 2685 calories and 89 grammes (3-15 ounces) of 
protein. 

These figures were all obtained before the war. We cannot 
put the current increase in the cost of the food of the poorer 
classes at less than 20 per cent, and it is probably more. Bread, 
as was shown in a previous section, forms more than 60 per cent, 
of their food and bread has risen 40 per cent. 

Returning then to the case of families which before the war 
spent 12s. weekly upon food we have to realise that they must 
now be spending at the very least 145. 6d. for a bare minimum of 
nutriment. Since their average income was I65. 6d. it is clear 
that there must now be, without rise of wage, a wholly inadequate 
margin for other expenditure. Doubtless wages will in many 
cases be raised, and war allowances will ease certain famiUes; 
but it is evident that no saving whatever can be expected in 
the food expenditure of households depending upon a wage of 
25s. or less. War bonuses will, in the case of the labouring 



FOOD BUDGETS 



29 



classes as a whole, at most compensate for the rise in food 
prices. 

We will now consider the case of a family with an appreciably 
higher income, that namely of a foreman earning 385. weekly. 

We give in the first place the complete budget for a week's 
expenditure upon food together with the price of the articles 
as purchased in York before the war and the cost of similar 
articles when bought at current prices. 



Food Budget of a Family consisting of Father, Mother, and Six 
Children aged from 4 to 13 years. Expenditure for one week 
in the month of September. 

Cost in York Cost 

Food bought Amount Protein Calories before the war to-day 

Animal foods ozs. s. d. s. d. 

Beef 6^ lbs. 16 6500 3 9 5 5 

Pork 1 „ 2 1340 7 10 

Ham and bacon. 3 „ 6 7500 17 3 3 

Sheep's head ... SJ „ 5 1015 6 OS 

Sheep's reeds ... 2| „ 5f 2172 04 06 

Fish "portion "of fried f 150 2^ 3 

Sardines 1 tin 1 240 4^ 6 

Cheese 1 lb. 4| 2000 7 10 

Milk 11 pints 8 4500 1 4i 110 

Condensed milk . 2 tins 2f 2800 9 10 

Butter Mb. 1800 8 9 

Dripping 2 „ 8000 6 10 

Vegetable foods 

Flour 4 stone 102 92500 5 8 10 8 

Quaker oats .... 2 lbs. 5 3800 5|- 6 

Potatoes 3i stone 16 15200 1 5J 2 Oh 

Vegetables, etc. . — — — 10 12 

Mushrooms L} lbs. 1 315 7i 9 

Grapes 1 „ — 335 6 

Sugar 8 „ — 14880 12 2 6 

Tea 1 „ — — 12 12 

Drinks, etc — — — 09 09 

Total consumption and cost.. 11 lbs. 165047 £14 £117 0| 

This family was exceedingly well fed. Calculated to the 
usual "per man" standard the food eaten would yield daily 
145 grammes (5| ounces) protein and 4800 calories. The market- 
ing was certainly carefully and skilfully done, and the food was 



30 FOOD BUDGETS 

well chosen in respect of variety and other factors. But 
whereas before the war the expenditure involved was only 
24s. for the week — a reasonable if somewhat large propor- 
tion of the total income — with current prices the cost of 
the food would have been 375. 0|(Z., showing an increase 
sufl&cient to swamp nearly the whole income of the family. 
This budget is instructive, as we have reason to believe that it 
represents fairly well the average expenditure of a large class 
of artisan famihes, though, as already suggested, the marketing 
was probably better than the average. The only economy to 
be suggested would consist in an all round reduction in the 
quantity of food purchased. A few luxuries appear : the grapes, 
mushrooms and sardines for instance. Upon these the sum of 
Is. 6d. was spent. Such a sum might well have been spent upon 
cheaper materials, but the outlay was no great extravagance. 
The bread which was all made at home supphed no less than 
56 per cent, of the whole fuel value of the diet. The meat 
purchased was wholly in the form of the cheaper cuts, such 
items as the sheep's head and sheep's reeds (a variety of tripe) 
yielding protein in a particularly cheap form. The protein in 
the animal food amounted to considerably less than one-third 
of the whole protein eaten, a very economical proportion. 
The supply of fat bore a satisfactory relation to the starchy 
foods, and this moreover with a very small expenditure upon 
butter — the most expensive of fats. Altogether this budget is 
extremely difficult to criticise from the standpoint of economy 
and wisdom in the choice of foodstuffs. It represents however 
a supply of nutriment in excess of actual needs, and in times of 
financial stress the principal items purchased could be reduced 
by a fifth without danger to health or efficiency. 

The following budget illustrates the expenditure upon food 
when the income is of the order of £150 to £200 per annum. 
It is that of a clerk's family in Cambridge. It represents a 
week's expenditure as observed in actual practice, the week 
chosen showing figures which agree closely in every respect 
with the average calculated from several consecutive weeks. 



FOOD BUDGETS 



31 



Food Budget of a Family consisting of Father, Mother and one 
Daughter aged 14. Expenditure for one week in the month 
of April. 

Cost in 
Cambridge Cost 

Food bought Amount Protein Calories before ttie war to-day 

ozs. s. d. S. d. 

Animal foods 

Beef 5i lbs. 14| 6325 4 9A 5 9 

Pork 2 „ 4 2680 14 16 

Ham 1 lb. 2i 1670 16 1 10 

Bacon 1 „ U 2685 11 15 

Fish 1 „ 2f 335 6 8 

Eggs 2 lbs. 4 1270 2 2 

MUk 20 pints 15 8010 3 4 3 4 

Butter 1| lbs. — 4800 2 2 IJ 

Lard and Dripping 1 lb. — 4010 8 8 

Vegetable foods 

Bread and flour . . 25 lbs. 36 29400 2 9 4 

Potatoes 14 „ 3^ 4340 8 12 

Rice J lb. i 815 14 H 

Vegetables — — — 10 10 

Currants lib. — — 5 5 

Apples 7 lbs. _ 700 6 6 

Jam 2 „ — I860 10 11 

Sugar 3 „ — 5580 9 1 

Tea. i lb. — — 10 10 

Beverages — — — 13 lo 

Total consumption and cost 5 lbs. 4 ozs. 74480 £1 6 6 £1 10 10 

The average expenditure of this family upon food before the 
war was something under thirty shilHngs weekly. The family 
being small this expenditure yielded high food values per head, 
namely 4250 calories and 140 grammes protein (5-0 ounces) 
when calculated in the usual way. We beheve nevertheless 
that the budget is fairly typical of its class. When, in the case 
of families depending upon an income of £150 or thereabouts, 
the number of children increases the consumption of food per 
head tends to fall somewhat, though there is of course increased 
expenditure upon food. But to judge from our own observa- 
tions (made in Cambridge and London) the food eaten by this 
class of the community is, on the average, decidedly in excess 
of the actual physiological requirements. In the case of the 
budget just given a reduction even of a fourth would leave an 



32 FOOD BUDGETS 

adequate supply of nutriment. Since families of this class are 
likely to be considerably incommoded by war prices, the facts 
contained in this pamphlet would seem to be of special value to 
them. 

We give finally, in a somewhat different form, the budget of 
a middle class family keeping three servants. 

This budget shows the weekly expenditure of a family which 
in respect of its food appears to be of economical habits. 
Although meat is consumed three times a day, the meals taken 
are of a comparatively simple nature; only one flesh course 
being eaten at dinner. But whereas in the budget first quoted 
meat supphed less than 30 per cent, of the total protein, in this 
it provides 60 per cent. Bread is responsible for only one- 
fourth of the total fuel value instead of yielding considerably 
more than half. Calculated in the usual way to man value the 
cost of the food amounts to eleven shilhngs per head per week, 
instead of five shilhngs and eightpence as in the artisan budget. 
The protein works out at 143 grammes and the calories are 4379. 
Considerable economies are possible in such a budget. The 
total food purchased might be safely reduced by about one- 
sixth, and about one-fourth of the meat could be replaced by 
bread, oatmeal, or other cheap vegetable foods. The figures of 
the budget just discussed may be taken as fairly representative 
of middle class expenditure before the war, though in many 
districts, and especially in the London area, they would be 
decidedly below the average. We are of opinion that as a 
rough indication of economies which are possible and perfectly 
safe for famihes with average middle class incomes and habits 
the changes suggested above may serve; namely a reduction 
of about one-sixth in the total food purchased, and a replace- 
ment of one-fourth of the meat by cheaper foodstuffs. 

Those whose income has so far shrunk as to call for more 
rigorous economies may profit by a study of the tables in this 
pamphlet, purchasing, so far as is consistent with obtaining a 
reasonable variety, only such foodstuffs as show a good pro- 
portionate yield in protein or calories for a given expenditure. 
Not every one reahses how greatly the kind of food bought may 
affect the amount of nutriment obtained for a given sum of 



FOOD BUDGETS 



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34 VARIATION IN THE PURCHASING POWER 

money. Necessity teaches the poor to buy the foodstuffs which 
are relatively the most profitable in this respect, even though 
their choice may be more or less unconscious. The effect of 
increase in income always results in a less economical choice, 
though this again may be to some degree unconscious. To 
please the palate money must be spent over and above that 
which will provide the necessary nutriment. Within reason 
such extra expenditure is justifiable, because the better we 
enjoy our food the better it is for our health. But very often 
the more dainty dish is necessary to stimulate appetite only 
because too much food as a whole is being eaten. Remember- 
ing that it is, after all, the amount of nutriment that really 
matters (the actual weight of protein and the number of 
calories eaten) the following comparison is striking enough. 
It gives the amount of nutriment obtained for one shilling by 
the labouring class, the artisan class, and the "servant keeping" 
middle class respectively. The figures represent averages 
obtained from the data of Mr Rowntree's studies and other 
sources. 

Amount of Nutrients obtained by the Expenditure of 
One Shilling (at prices before the war) 





Labourers' families 


Artisans' families 


Middle class families 


Protein 


179 grams 


140 grams 


92 grams 


Calories 


5500 


4250 


2850 



Comparing the expenditure of the poor with that of the 
well-to-do we find that the former get nearly twice as much 
for their money. Otherwise, under their economical conditions, 
they could not live. 

The facts hitherto discussed in this section bear scarcely 
any relation to the expenditure upon food of the more luxurious 
classes. Only those who have consciously thought about the 
matter fully realise how greatly the element of pure luxury 
may increase the cost of maintaining a human being. We have 
seen that many thousands of families, averaging (with the 
children) six or seven individuals each, were fed before the war 
upon a weekly outlay of some 12s. It is therefore no mere 



CONCLUSION 35 

fashion of speech, but Hterally true, to say that one man's 
expenditure upon his dinner may keep another man's family 
for a week. 

Allowing, as seems certain from the facts we have discussed, 
that the poorer classes are unable to make any retrenchment 
at all in their food expenditure, there is no doubt that the 
wealthy classes, assisted to no small extent by the middle and 
lower middle classes, could effect such a saving as would average 
10 per cent, of the whole national expenditure upon food. 
This would amount to £60,000,000, and probably to more. 
It would be a saving won at the expense of some discomfort 
but one with no danger to health. If a course of economy in 
food involves effort and discomfort it should be the more 
welcome to those who do not otherwise share the much greater 
discomforts of active service, and the money saved in such a 
way might well be specially ear-marked for providing the 
sinews of war. 



Cambridge: 

FEINTED BV JOUK CLAY, M.k. 
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 



